G. van Belle sees statistics as playing a critical role in the 4 approaches to risk assessment. Statistical issues include the problem of extrapolating from animals to humans, especially high-dose to low-dose extrapolation.

Other issues involve the acute exposures studies in animal studies vs. the chronic human exposures they purport to study.

He suggests a sixth approach - accountability to answer, “How can we know that the risk management worked?”

The problem - not always possible to count the number of lives saved, or accidents prevented.

For example, airbags may save lives, but there were the unexpected deaths of children riding as passengers in the front seat.